Fluid Being

Mercury in Chinese Medicine
and Alchemy


Cicada shedding shell on top of mercury against vermilion background
Misty vermilion background
Sage holding elixir against colored background
Sage holding elixir against monochrome background
Monochrome sage and monochrome background
Monochrome sage holding vermilion colored elixir\
Sage holding elixir against colored background
Sage holding elixir against monochrome background
Monochrome sage and monochrome background
Monochrome sage holding vermilion colored elixir\

Fluids flow, and flow is change.

But what is change?

Life and death are not as they seem;

things can look utterly altered,

yet remain and return unchanged.

Grasp these truths, and

you are supremely wise.

Drink this fluid, and

you may live forever.

Mercury and Cinnabar

The Chinese name for the fluid was itself like a riddle: shuiyin, ‘liquid silver’, a tremulous fluid that shines like polished metal. A marriage of ceaseless flux and lasting solidity.

We call it mercury. But it isn’t just the name that differs. Whereas we picture droplets with a dazzling white sheen,

Drop of silvery mercury

the imagination of mercury in traditional China was associated first and above all with the colour vermilion—the scarlet pigment ground from the mineral cinnabar.

Cinnabar rock



Cinnabar is mercury sulfide (HgS), the primary ore of mercury, and its close affinity to mercury (Hg) was already well known by the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE).

Powdered cinnabar



Apply strong heat to the red powder of crushed cinnabar

Ball of fire







and it suddenly changes into white globules of mercury.






Add sulfur to that mercury

Drop of silvery mercury








and the original red powder is miraculously restored.

Powdered cinnabar

From cinnabar into mercury and from mercury back into cinnabar.{{1}}{{{The modern chemistry of this transformation is reviewed in Zhao Kuanghua 趙匡華, Zhongguo gudai huaxueshi yanjiu 中國古代化學史研究 (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1985), 128–53. The process was described in the Divine Farmer’s Classic of Materia Medica, see Shennong bencao jing jiaozhu, juan 2, 16–17 (Ctext wiki). For the general background of this foundational classic, see Paul Unschuld, Medicine in China: A History of Pharmaceutics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 11–28.}}}

Cycle of transformation between cinnabar and mercury

The changes were radical and astonishing. But more astonishingly still, they could be endlessly repeated.

For those impassioned experimenters known as alchemists, who devoted months, years and even entire lifetimes to probing the possibilities of such transmutations, the alternation between a vermilion powder and white metallic fluid hinted at the deepest secrets of the cosmos—the key to the mystery of Being and Becoming.{{2}}{{{The fourth-century alchemist Ge Hong complained that such matters were far too profound for ordinary laymen to grasp, and he contrasted their bewildered scepticism to the deep insights gleaned by adepts. See Ge Hong, Baopuzi neipian, juan 4, 72 (Kanripo).}}}

Alchemist tending to fire
Alchemist tending fire against starry night background

Drop of mercury

The colours radiated significance.{{3}}{{{Guolong Lai, ‘Colors and Color Symbolism in Early Chinese Ritual Art’, in Color in Ancient and Medieval East Asia, ed. Mary M. Dusenbury (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2015), 25–43.}}}

Cinnabar vermilion evoked the power of blood and flourishing vitality, while white, the colour of mercury, called to mind bare bones and funerals. The two hues of mercury’s transmutations thus reprised the fateful cycle of life and death.

Juxtaposition of Chinese bride in red and white skeleton

Vermilion cinnabar was mercury’s auspicious face; its promise of life. And, as such, it appeared ubiquitously—in everything from the paint covering grand buildings and the lacquer coating exquisite objets

Vermilion jewelry box

to the lasting ink of imperial seals.

Vermilion Chinese seal

But mercury’s pale shadow was never far away nor forgotten. Cinnabar and mercury. Mercury and cinnabar. Like blood and bones. Like life and death.

Powdered cinnabar
vermilion Chinese palace at night

Medicine and Poison

Vermilion vial

Mercury can kill. This was recognised in China long ago. Early medical works such as the third-century Essential Synopsis of the Golden Cabinet already warned of its lethal danger.{{4}}{{{If mercury enters the ears of humans or livestock, it will kill them. The antidote is silver or gold placed near the ears, which will draw the toxin out. See Zhang Zhongjing, Jingui yaolüe, juan 25 (Ctext). The opposite also holds, and mercury can be used to counter gold poisoning. See Ge Hong, Zhouhou beiji fang, juan 7, sec. 68 (Kanripo).}}} And at least five Tang dynasty (618–907) emperors were known to have died from consuming mercurial elixirs.{{5}}{{{Zhao Yi 趙翼, Ershier shi zhaji 二十二史劄記 [Notes on Twenty-Two Histories] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1963), 398–99.}}}

Painting of skull

Nonetheless, mercury was still valued as a life-giving medicine. In the Mawangdui manuscripts dating from the second century BCE, we find it applied externally to treat burns, scabies, abscesses, and itching.{{6}}{{{Donald Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts (London and New York: Kegan Paul International Press, 1998), 282–83, 287, 290, 296–97. }}} The Divine Farmer’s Classic of Materia Medica, the foundational treatise of Chinese pharmacology, describes mercury’s effect as cooling and pungent, and prescribes it for lice and worms; itchy scabies; ulcer-induced baldness; inducing abortions; eliminating heat; and countering poisoning from gold, silver, copper and tin.{{7}}{{{Shennong bencao jing jiaozhu, juan 2, 16–17 (Ctext wiki).}}}

Alchemists insisted, moreover, that mercury was special. Its imperishability made it different from all other medicines.

‘All herbs’, Ge Hong 葛洪 (283–343) observed—the materials from which most medicines are compounded—‘perish upon burning’. But not mercury: subjecting cinnabar to intense heat does not destroy it, but merely transforms it into mercury, and this mercury can always be transmuted back into cinnabar.{{8}}{{{Ge Hong, Baopuzi neipian, juan 4, 72 (Kanripo).}}}

Contrast between combustible herbs and indestructible cinnabar

This unique imperishability inspired a soaring dream: might not an elixir compounded from this magical fluid impart the power to last forever? If people are what they eat, could not the assimilation of something imperishable make mortals immortal? Could not a cinnabar concoction enable human beings to pass beyond time?

Alchemist tending fire against starry night background

The possibility was entrancing. The dream was lethal. For over a thousand years, emperors and other cultural elites avidly consumed mercurial elixirs in the hope that they might live forever. And, for over a thousand years, they died, poisoned.

Sage holding elixir labeled as both poison and medicine
Same sage holding glowing vial against starruy night background

This now seems like the strangest madness.

How could people have believed that ingesting a known poison could prolong life forever? And how could the belief have persisted, century after century, when this poison had plainly caused so many to die?

Part of the explanation lies in a key, but often overlooked, feature of Chinese pharmacology: namely, the fluidity of the categories of poisons and medicines. Poisons and medicines were not conceived as fixed and opposed essences. Everything depended on context, on how a substance was processed and how it was used. Cooking, timing, dosage, the condition of the patient, the other substances with which it was mixed—all these shaped whether a drug cured or killed.{{9}}{{{For recent studies of poisons in classical Chinese pharmacy, see Yan Liu, 'Poisonous Medicine in Ancient China', in Toxicology in Antiquity, ed. Philip Wexler (London: Elsevier, 2019), 431–39; Yan Liu, Potent Matters: Poisons and Medicines in Early Imperial China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, forthcoming).}}}

Scene of various ways of preparing herbs to become medicines

Mercury was unquestionably toxic, but it was also a marvellous medicine. It could kill and impart immortality. It had to be used carefully, but that didn’t mean that it shouldn’t be used. Yes, it could easily harm the intestines, Sun Simiao 孫思邈 (581?–682) cautioned, but for expelling worms—those creatures that loomed large in the Daoist imagination of obstacles to long life—few drugs were more potent.{{10}}{{{Sun Simiao, Beiji qianjin yaofang jiaoshi, juan 18, 652 (Kanripo). On the efficacy of mercury as a vermifuge, see also Tao Hongjing, Bencao jing jizhu, juan 2, 130 (Ctext wiki).}}}

Daoist image of the worms infesting the body

Moreover, it didn’t have to be poisonous. Or so some claimed. This was a second reason for mercury's prolonged popularity: alchemists promised that they could tame its toxicity while preserving its potency. Indeed, a detoxifying recipe already appears in the first Chinese manual of pharmaceutical preparations, the Treatise on Drug Processing from Lord Thunder (fifth century or later):

If one first uses the juices of the Purple-back Heavenly Okra and the Nightly Entangled Vine to boil mercury for one day and one night, its poison naturally retreats.{{11}}{{{Lei Xiao, Leigong paozhi lun tongjie, 16–17 (Ctext wiki). The ‘Purple-back Heavenly Okra’ could refer to one of the following herbs: purple gynura, tea begonia, semiaquilegia, purple senecio. The ‘Nightly Entangled Vine’ is likely to be flowery knotweed stem.}}}
Lei Xiao, Leigong paozhi lun, 16-17

Can mercury truly be drained of its poison? Each new generation of alchemists declared that they had succeeded where their predecessors had failed.  And, in each new generation of patrons, there would be those who believed them. In part they believed, no doubt, because they wanted to believe, because hope springs eternal.

Alchemist concocting elixir

But their trust in the alchemists was further enabled by a subtler idea. Daoists suggested that life and death are not always as they appear. Many who apparently had died from taking elixirs had not actually passed away, but simply passed on to another plane, where they lived free and transformed, forever.

Cicada



Beyond Life and Death

What did immortality mean in traditional China?

According to the Book of Jin (648 CE), when Ge Hong ‘died’ at the age of 81, his face still had the colour of the living and his body remained supple. Even more remarkably, when his corpse was lifted, it felt extraordinarily light as if there was nothing there but his clothes.{{12}}{{{Fan Xuanling et al., Jinshu, juan 72 (Ctext wiki).}}}

Ge Hong against misty mountain background

Daoist hagiographies often portray the passing of accomplished masters in this way. After death, the master’s body would vanish altogether, leaving behind only paraphernalia such as clothes, a sword and a talisman. The master would then later reappear somewhere far away, roaming in a sublimated body and under a different name. The death seen by the uninitiated witnesses around him was only apparent. In reality, he had slipped into a separate ethereal realm, where nothing perishes.

The fourth-century Biographies of Immortals records the tale of a Daoist master named Wei Boyang 魏伯陽 (fl. Eastern Han dynasty, 25–220) who brought three disciples to a mountain to compound an elixir. After the elixir was completed, Wei pronounced it toxic and fed it to a dog, who promptly died. But Wei expected this, and he and one trusting disciple proceeded to ingest the elixir themselves—and they died as well. The two remaining disciples took fright and fled, only to realise later that they had misunderstood what they had seen: Wei, his faithful follower and the dog had not really died, but merely shed their mortal bodies.{{13}}{{{Ge Hong, Shenxian zhuan jiaoshi, juan 2 (Kanripo). The story is discussed in Akahori Akira 赤堀昭, ‘Drug Taking and Immortality’ in Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, ed. Livia Kohn with Yoshinobu Sakade (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989), 88.}}}

Wei Boyang preparing elixir accompanied by dog and disciple

Daoist scriptures speak of achieving immortality through ‘corpse deliverance’ (shijie 尸解), a process described as being similar to how snakes moult their skin or cicadas leave behind their shells.{{14}}{{{Wang Chong, Lunheng jiaoshi, 7 (Kanripo). For studies of shijie, see Isabelle Robinet, ‘Metamorphosis and Deliverance from the Corpse in Taoism’, History of Religions 19 (1979): 37–70; Ursula-Angelika Cedzich, ‘Corpse Deliverance, Substitute Bodies, Name Change, and Feigned Death: Aspects of Metamorphosis and Immortality in Early Medieval China’, Journal of Chinese Religions 29 (2001): 1–68; Fabrizio Pregadio, ‘Which is the Daoist Immortal Body?’ Micrologus 26 (2018): 389–92.}}}  To achieve such deliverance, the Prolegomena to the Five Talismans of the Numinous Treasure of the Most High (late fourth century) suggests, one must ingest an elixir of mercury mixed with ox fat and tin.{{15}}{{{Taishang lingbao wufu xu, juan 2 (Kanripo).}}} By literally incorporating mercury—by absorbing this endlessly transmutable yet indestructible fluid matter into the self—one could create an imperishable sublimated body, which would eventually float free and far from its mortal shell. To vulgar eyes, it might seem as if the elixir had killed the person. But discerning adepts would know that the person had actually been reborn, utterly transformed, like a crawling worm on earth that becomes a butterfly fluttering in air.

Caterpillar

Misty mountains
Cicada emerging from shell


Fluids flow, and flow is time and mutability—just as life is ceaselessly changing and lived in time. But cinnabar and mercury were proof that some things can be forever mutable and yet endure forever. The immortality that they promised did not refuse or resist death, but rather passed through and beyond it, to a realm beyond the opposition of life and death, beyond solidity and flux. Beyond the veil of time.

GLOSSARY

Cinnabar dansha 丹沙 or 丹砂, or zhusha 朱沙 or 硃砂

Corpse deliverance shijie 尸解

Divine Farmer’s Classic of Materia Medica Shennong bencao jing 神農本草經

Elixir dan

Essential Synopsis of the Golden Cabinet Jingui yaolüe 金匱要略

Ge Hong 葛洪 (283–343)

Mercury shuiyin 水銀

Sun Simiao 孫思邈 (581?–682)

Treatise on Drug Processing from Lord Thunder Leigong paozhi lun 雷公炮炙論

Wei Boyang 魏伯陽 (fl. Eastern Han, 25–220)

IMAGE AND FILM CREDITS

Listed in the order in which they first appear in the essay.

Cicada molting. Taken from Wikimedia. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Universal Public Domain Dedication (CC0 1.0).

Mercury. Pugliano, 2011. Taken from Flickr. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0).

Swirling texture. Upklak. White gray marble realistic texture background. Taken from Freepik. Reproduced under Freepik license.

Lei Gong preparing medicines. From Buyi Lei Gong paozhi bianlan, edition of 1591. Wellcome Collection. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike International (CC BY-4.0).

Cinnabar rock. Robert Matthew Lavinsky, Cinnabar, 2010. Taken from Wikipedia. Robert Matthew Lavinsky © 2010. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Vermilion pigment. Kardinal9, Vermilion Pigment, 2014. Taken from Wikimedia. Kardinal9 © 2014. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Orange fire. Taken from Pxhere. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Universal Public Domain Dedication (CC0 1.0).

Chinese wedding ceremony. Kanegen, Chinese Wedding Ceremony, 2009. Taken from Wikimedia. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Generic (CC BY 2.0).

Skull and bones. Chapel of All Saints, Czech Republic. Taken from Pixabay. Reproduced under Pixabay license.

Vermilion wall. Taken from Pxhere. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Universal Public Domain Dedication (CC0 1.0).

Vermillion Lacquerbox. Andrew Lih, Vermillion Lacquerbox, 2004. Taken from Wikimedia. Andrew Lih © 2004. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0).

Vermilion seal of the Qing dynasty. Taken from Wikimedia. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Universal Public Domain Dedication (CC0 1.0).

Starry night background. Taken from Pexels. Reproduced under Pexels license.

'Most medicines' plant. Chinese Herbaceous Peony from Bencao Tupu, 1644. Wellcome Collection. Reproduced under a Creative Commons license (CC BY-4.0).

Ashes. Kuriyama, 2020. Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication (CC0 1.0).

Skull. Pieter Claesz (1597/8–1660), Vanitas. Still-Life, 1625. Wikimedia. Public domain. Modified by Kuriyama.

Daoist worms. Fifteenth-Century Image of Daoist Inner Topography. Wellcome Collection. Reproduced under Creative Commons Attribution International (CC BY-4.0).

Processing mercury. From Bencao pinhui jingyao, 1505. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Public domain.

Cicada shell. Amy West, Cicada Shell, 2011. Amy West © 2011. Taken from Flickr. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Generic (CC BY 2.0).

Ge Hong. Portrait from the Bencao mengquan (Ming dynasty). Wellcome Collection. Reproduced under Creative Commons Attribution International (CC BY-4.0).

Clouds. Savvas Karampalasis, 00152_Abstract Storm Clouds Gathering Seamless Loop, 2016. 3D COR - Savvas Karampalasis © 2016. Taken from YouTube. Reproduced by license.

Fog. Pfctdayelise, Fog Curls around the Peaks of Mt Lu, 2005. Pfctdayelise © 2005. Wikimedia. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike Generic (CC BY-SA 2.5).

Wei Boyang, dog and disciple. Wang Shizhen, Youxiang liexian quanzhuan, 1650. Taken from Hathi Trust Digital Library. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Universal Public Domain Dedication (CC0 1.0). Modified by Kuriyama.

Caterpillar. Didier Descouens, Caterpillar of Papilio Machaon, 2010. Didier Descouens © 2010. Taken from Wikimedia. Reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike International (CC BY-SA 4.0).

Butterfly animation. Kuriyama, Butterfly Animation, 2020. Created combining green screen butterfly video taken from Pixabay with Pixabay license with the Fog Curls around the Peaks of Mt Lu from Wikimedia (see entry under 'fog'). Kuriyama © 2020. Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike Generic (CC BY-SA 2.5).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources

Buyi Lei Gong paozhi bianlan 補遺雷公炮製便覽 [Supplement to Lei Gong’s Guide to the Preparation of Drugs]. Edited by Zheng Jinsheng 鄭金生. Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2012.

Ge Hong 葛洪. Baopuzi neipian jiaoshi 抱朴子內篇校釋 [Inner Chapters of the Master Who Embraces the Uncarved Wood, Collated and Annotated]. Edited by Wang Ming 王明. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985. Kanripo Kanseki Repository (henceforth Kanripo).

Ge Hong 葛洪. Shenxian zhuan jiaoshi 神仙傳校釋 [Biographies of the Immortals, Collated and Annotated]. Edited by Hu Shouwei 胡守為. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2010. Kanripo.

Ge Hong 葛洪. Zhouhou beiji fang 肘後備急方 [Formulas for Emergencies to Keep at Hand]. Edited by Shang Zhijun 尚志鈞. Hefei: Anhui kexue jishu chubanshe, 1983. Kanripo.

Jinshu 晉書 [History of Jin]. Edited by Fang Xuanling 房玄齡 et al. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974. Chinese Text Project Wiki (henceforth: Ctext wiki).

Lei Xiao 雷斅. Leigong paozhi lun tongjie 雷公炮炙論通解 [Treatise on Drug Processing from Lord Thunder, Thorough Explanation]. Edited by Dun Baosheng 頓寶生 et al. Xi’an: Sanqin chubanshe, 2001. Ctext wiki.

Shennong bencao jing jiaozhu 神農本草經校注 [Divine Farmer’s Classic of Materia Medica, Collated and Annotated]. Edited by Shang Zhijun 尚志鈞. Beijing: Xueyuan chubanshe, 2008. Ctext wiki.

Sun Simiao 孫思邈. Beiji qianjin yaofang jiaoshi 備急千金要方校釋 [Essential Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold for Emergencies, Collated and Annotated]. Edited by Li Jingrong 李景榮 et al. Beijing: Renmin weisheng chubanshe, 1997. Kanripo.

Taishang lingbao wufu xu 太上靈寶五符序 [Prolegomena to the Five Talismans of the Numinous Treasure of the Most High]. Daoist Canon 388 (DZ 388). Kanripo.

Tao Hongjing 陶弘景. Bencao jing jizhu 本草經集注 [Collected Annotations on the Classic of Materia Medica]. Edited by Shang Zhijun 尚志鈞. Beijing: Renmin weisheng chubanshe, 1994. Ctext wiki.

Wang Chong 王充. Lunheng jiaoshi 論衡校釋 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance, Collated and Explained]. Edited by Huang Hui 黃暉. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1990. Kanripo.

Wang Shizhen 王世貞 and Wang Yunpeng 汪雲鵬. Liexian quanzhuan 列仙全傳 [Complete Biographies of Collected Immortals]. Yangzhou: Guangling shushe, 2009. Hathi Trust Digital Library.

Zhang Zhongjing 張仲景. Jingui yaolüe 金匱要略 [Essential Synopsis of the Golden Cabinet]. Beijing: Renmin weisheng chubanshe, 2004. Ctext.

Secondary Sources

Akahori, Akira 赤堀昭. ‘Drug Taking and Immortality’. In Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, edited by Livia Kohn with Yoshinobu Sakade, 73–98. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989.

Cedzich, Ursula-Angelika. ‘Corpse Deliverance, Substitute Bodies, Name Change, and Feigned Death: Aspects of Metamorphosis and Immortality in Early Medieval China’. Journal of Chinese Religions 29 (2001): 1–68. doi.org/10.1179/073776901804774578

Harper, Donald. Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts. London and New York: Kegan Paul International Press, 1998.

Lai, Guolong. ‘Colors and Color Symbolism in Early Chinese Ritual Art’. In Color in Ancient and Medieval East Asia, edited by Mary M. Dusenbury, 25–43. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2015.

Liu, Yan. 'Poisonous Medicine in Ancient China'. In Toxicology in Antiquity, edited by Philip Wexler, 431–39. London: Elsevier, 2019.

Liu, Yan. Potent Matters: Poisons and Medicines in Early Imperial China. Seattle: University of Washington Press, forthcoming.

Pregadio, Fabrizio. ‘Which is the Daoist Immortal Body?’. Micrologus 26 (2018): 385–407.

Robinet, Isabelle. ‘Metamorphosis and Deliverance from the Corpse in Taoism’. History of Religions 19 (1979): 37–70. doi.org/10.1086/462835

Unschuld, Paul. Medicine in China: A History of Pharmaceutics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.

Zhao Kuanghua 趙匡華. Zhongguo gudai huaxueshi yanjiu 中國古代化學史研究 [Research on the History of Chemistry in Pre-Modern China]. Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1985.

Zhao Yi 趙翼. Ershier shi zhaji 二十二史劄記 [Notes on Twenty-two Histories]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1963.


This essay should be referenced as: Yan Liu and Shigehisa Kuriyama, ‘Fluid Being: Mercury in Chinese Medicine and Alchemy’. In Fluid Matter(s): Flow and Transformation in the History of the Body, edited by Natalie Köhle and Shigehisa Kuriyama. Asian Studies Monograph Series 14. Canberra, ANU Press, 2020. doi.org/10.22459/FM.2020

MORE FLUID TALES

Acknowledgements
and Impressum

Introduction

Fluid Matter(s): Introduction
Natalie Köhle and
Shigehisa Kuriyama

1. Manipulating Flow

In Flux
Brooke Holmes

Whose Life is Water,
Whose Food is Blood

Lisa Allette Brooks

Bloodletting in Mongolia
Natasha Fijn

Fluid Feelings
Angelika C. Messner and
Shigehisa Kuriyama

2. Incorporating Flow

Life and Excrement
Shigehisa Kuriyama

Fluid Being
Yan Liu and Shigehisa Kuriyama

Intoxicating Transformations
James McHugh

3. Structuring Flow

Sunk from Sight
Lan A. Li

Spirit, Sweat and Qi
Natalie Köhle 

Whence Cometh Sad Tears
Ya Zuo

Fat Matters
Nina Sellars

Epilogue

Epilogue: Fluid Matter(s)
Shigehisa Kuriyama

Contributors

Fluid Matter(s)
Contributors