Abstract
The temperament of animals can vary among individuals and among populations, but it is often unclear whether spatial variation in temperament is the result of acclimation to local environmental conditions or genetic adaptation to spatial differences in natural selection. This study tested whether populations of a marine fish that experience different levels of mortality and fishing exhibited local adaptation in behaviors related to predator avoidance and evasion. First, we measured variation in reactivity to perceived risk in wild populations of black surfperch (Embiotoca jacksoni). We compared flight initiation distances (FID) between populations with significantly different mortality rates. After finding that FID values were substantially lower in the low-risk locations, we tested for local adaptation by rearing lab-born offspring from both high- and low-risk populations in a common environment before measuring their behavior. Lab-reared offspring from high- and low-risk populations exhibited significant differences in several behaviors related to reactivity. Between 23 and 43% of the total variation in behaviors we measured could be attributed to source population. These results thus suggest that a substantial amount of spatial variation in behaviors related to predator evasion may represent local adaptation. In addition, behaviors we measured had an average, broad-sense heritability of 0.24, suggesting that the behavioral tendencies of these populations have some capacity to evolve further in response to any changes in selection.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adriaenssens B, Johnsson JI (2011) Shy trout grow faster: exploring links between personality and fitness-related traits in the wild. Behav Ecol 22:135–143. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arq185
Allendorf FW, Hard JJ (2009) Human-induced evolution caused by unnatural selection through harvest of wild animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:9987–9994. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901069106
Alós J, Palmer M, Trías P, Díaz-Gil C, Arlinghaus R (2015) Recreational angling intensity correlates with alteration of vulnerability to fishing in a carnivorous coastal fish species. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 72:217–225. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2014-0183
Andersen KH, Marty L, Arlinghaus R (2018) Evolution of boldness and life history in response to selective harvesting. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 75:271–281. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2016-0350
Ariyomo TO, Carter M, Watt PJ (2013) Heritability of boldness and aggressiveness in the Zebrafish. Behav Genet 43:161–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-013-9585-y
Arlinghaus R, Laskowski KL, Alós J, Klefoth T, Monk CT, Nakayama S, Schröder A (2017) Passive gear-induced timidity syndrome in wild fish populations and its potential ecological and managerial implications. Fish Fish 18:360–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12176
Bakker TCM (1986) Aggressiveness in sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.): a behaviour-genetic study. Behaviour 98:1–144. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853986X00937
Baltz DM (1984) Life history variation among female surfperches (Perciformes: Embiotocidae). Environ Biol Fish 10:159–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00001123
Bates D, Maechler M, Bolker B, Walker S (2015) Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw 67:1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Bednekoff PA (1996) Risk-sensitive foraging, fitness, and life histories: where does reproduction fit into the big picture? Am Zool 36:471–483. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/36.4.471
Bell AM (2005) Behavioural differences between individuals and two populations of stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). J Evolut Biol 18:464–473. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00817.x
Bell AM (2007) Animal personalities. Nature 447:539–540. https://doi.org/10.1038/447539a
Bell AM, Hankison SJ, Laskowski KL (2009) The repeatability of behaviour: a meta-analysis. Anim Behav 77:771–783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.12.022
Bell AM, Trapp R, Keagy J (2018) Parenting behaviour is highly heritable in male stickleback. R Soc Open Sci 5:171029. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.171029
Bergseth BJ, Williamson DH, Frisch AJ, Russ GR (2016) Protected areas preserve natural behaviour of a targeted fish species on coral reefs. Biol Conserv 198:202–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.04.011
Bernardi G (2000) Barriers to gene flow in Embiotoca jacksoni, a marine fish lacking a pelagic larval stage. Evolution 54:226–237. https://doi.org/10.1554/0014-3820(2000)054[0226:BTGFIE]2.0.CO;2
Best C, Kurrasch DM, Vijayan MM (2017) Maternal cortisol stimulates neurogenesis and affects larval behaviour in zebrafish. Sci Rep 7:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40905
Biro PA, Post JR (2008) Rapid depletion of genotypes with fast growth and bold personality traits from harvested fish populations. PNAS 105:2919–2922. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0708159105
Biro PA, Sampson P (2015) Fishing directly selects on growth rate via behaviour: implications of growth-selection that is independent of size. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 282:20142283. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2283
Bolnick DI, Svanbäck R, Fordyce JA, Yang LH, Davis JM, Hulsey CD, Forister ML (2003) The ecology of individuals: incidence and implications of individual specialization. Am Nat 161:1–28. https://doi.org/10.1086/343878
Bozec YM, Kulbicki M, Laloë F, Mou-Tham G, Gascuel D (2011) Factors affecting the detection distances of reef fish: implications for visual counts. Mar Biol 158:969–981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-011-1623-9
Brock VE (1954) A preliminary report on a method of estimating reef fish populations. J Wildl Manag 18:297–308. https://doi.org/10.2307/3797016
Brodin T, Lind MI, Wiberg MK, Johansson F (2013) Personality trait differences between mainland and island populations in the common frog (Rana temporaria). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 67:135–143
Brown C, Burgess F, Braithwaite VA (2007) Heritable and experiential effects on boldness in a tropical poeciliid. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 62:237–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-007-0458-3
Clutton-Brock TH, Albon SD, Guinness FE (1987) Interactions between population density and maternal characteristics affecting fecundity and juvenile survival in red deer. J Anim Ecol 56:857–871. https://doi.org/10.2307/4953
Coleman K, Wilson DS (1998) Shyness and boldness in pumpkinseed sunfish: individual differences are context-specific. Anim Behav 56:927–936. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1998.0852
Conrad JL, Weinersmith KL, Brodin T, Saltz JB, Sih A (2011) Behavioural syndromes in fishes: a review with implications for ecology and fisheries management. J Fish Biol 78:395–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02874.x
Croes BM, Laurance WF, Lahm SA, Tchignoumba L, Alonso A, Lee ME, Campbell P, Buij R (2007) The influence of hunting on antipredator behavior in Central African monkeys and duikers. Biotropica 39:257–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2006.00247.x
Dall SRX, Houston AI, McNamara JM (2004) The behavioural ecology of personality: consistent individual differences from an adaptive perspective. Ecol Lett 7:734–739. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00618.x
Diaz Pauli B, Sih A (2017) Behavioural responses to human-induced change: why fishing should not be ignored. Evol Appl 10:231–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12456
Dingemanse NJ, Réale D (2005) Natural selection and animal personality. Behaviour 142:1159–1184. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853905774539445
Dingemanse NJ, Both C, Drent PJ, Van Oers K, van Noordwijk AJ (2002) Repeatability and heritability of exploratory behaviour in great tits from the wild. Anim Behav 64:929–938. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2002.2006
Dingemanse NJ, Van der Plas F, Wright J, Réale D, Schrama M, Roff DA, Van der Zee E, Barber I (2009) Individual experience and evolutionary history of predation affect expression of heritable variation in fish personality and morphology. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 276:1285–1293. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1555
Dingemanse N, Kazem A, Reale D, Wright J (2010) Behavioural reaction norms: animal personality meets individual plasticity. Trends Ecol Evol 25:81–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.07.013
Dochtermann NA, Schwab T, Anderson Berdal M et al (2019) The heritability of behavior: a meta-analysis. J Hered 110:403–410. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esz023
Duckworth RA, Aguillon SM (2015) Eco-evolutionary dynamics: investigating multiple causal pathways linking changes in behavior, population density and natural selection. J Ornithol 156:115–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-015-1239-9
Ebeling AW, Laur DR (1985) The influence of plant cover on surfperch abundance at an offshore temperate reef. Environ Biol Fish 12:169–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00005148
Edeline E, Carlson SM, Stige LC, Winfield IJ, Fletcher JM, James JB, Haugen TO, Vøllestad LA, Stenseth NC (2007) Trait changes in a harvested population are driven by a dynamic tug-of-war between natural and harvest selection. PNAS 104:15799–15804. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0705908104
Eriksen MS, Faerevik G, Kittilsen S, McCormick MI, Damsgård B, Braithwaite VA, Braastad BO, Bakken M (2011) Stressed mothers–troubled offspring: a study of behavioural maternal effects in farmed Salmo salar. J Fish Biol 79:575–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03036.x
Falconer DS, Mackay TFC (1996) Introduction to quantitative genetics. Longmans Green, Harlow
Foster S, Endler J (1999) Geographic variation in behavior: perspectives on evolutionary mechanisms. Oxford Univ. Press, New York
Frost AJ, Winrow-Giffen A, Ashley PJ, Sneddon LU (2007) Plasticity in animal personality traits: does prior experience alter the degree of boldness? Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 274:333–339. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3751
Fu C, Fu SJ, Cao ZD, Yuan XZ (2015) Habitat-specific anti-predator behavior variation among pale chub (Zacco platypus) along a river. Mar Freshw Behav Phy 48:267–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/10236244.2015.1050785
Garenc C, Silversides FG, Guderley H (1998) Burst swimming and its enzymatic correlates in the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus): full-sib heritabilities. Can J Zool 76:680–688. https://doi.org/10.1139/z97-236
Gosling SD (2001) From mice to men: what can we learn about personality from animal research? Psychol Bull 127:45. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.45
Gotanda KM, Turgeon K, Kramer DL (2009) Body size and reserve protection affect flight initiation distance in parrotfishes. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 63:1563–1572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-009-0750-
Guidetti P, Vierucci E, Bussotti S (2008) Differences in escape response of fish in protected and fished Mediterranean rocky reefs. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 88:625–627. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315408000933
Harris S, Ramnarine IW, Smith HG, Pettersson LB (2010) Picking personalities apart: estimating the influence of predation, sex and body size on boldness in the guppy Poecilia reticulata. Oikos 119:1711–1718
Hendry AP (2016) Key questions on the role of phenotypic plasticity in eco-evolutionary dynamics. J Hered 107:25–41. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esv060
Hixon MA (1981) An experimental analysis of territoriality in the California reef fish Embiotoca jacksoni (Embiotocidae). Copeia. https://doi.org/10.2307/1444571
Hixon MA, Johnson DW, Sogard SM (2014) BOFFFF’s: on the importance of conserving old-growth age structure in fishery populations. ICES J Mar Sci 71:2171–2185. https://doi.org/10.1093/icejms/fst200
Holbrook SJ, Schmitt RJ (1984) Experimental analyses of patch selection by foraging black surfperch (Embiotoca jacksoni Agazzi). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 79:39–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(84)90029-7
Januchowski-Hartley FA, Graham NA, Feary DA, Morove T, Cinner JE (2011) Fear of fishers: human predation explains behavioral changes in coral reef fishes. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022761
Januchowski-Hartley FA, Nash KL, Lawton RJ (2012) Influence of spear guns, dive gear and observers on estimating fish flight initiation distance on coral reefs. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 469:113–119. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09971
Januchowski-Hartley FA, Graham NA, Cinner JE, Russ GR (2013) Spillover of fish naïveté from marine reserves. Ecol Lett 16:191–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12028
Jensen P (2013) Transgenerational epigenetic effects on animal behaviour. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 113:447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2013.01.001
Johnson DW (2006) Predation, habitat complexity, and variation in density-dependent mortality of temperate reef fishes. Ecology 87:1179–1188. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658
Johnson DW, Christie MR, Pusack TJ, Stallings CD, Hixon MA (2018) Integrating larval connectivity with local demography reveals regional dynamics of a marine metapopulation. Ecology 99:1419–1429. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2343
Johnson DW, Stirling BS, Paz J, Satterfield DR (2019) Geographic variation in demography of black perch (Embiotoca jacksoni): effects of density, food availability, predation, and fishing. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 516:16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2019.04.008
Karpov KA, Albin DP, Van Buskirk WH (1995) The marine recreational fishery in northern and Central California: a historical comparison (1958–86), status of stocks (1980–86), and effects of changes in the California current (No. 176). State of California, Resources Agency, Department of Fish and Game
Kawecki TJ, Ebert D (2004) Conceptual issues in local adaptation. Ecol Lett 7:1225–1241. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00684.x
Kobler A, Engelen B, Knaepkens G, Eens M (2009) Temperament in bullheads: do laboratory and field explorative behaviour variables correlate? Sci Nat 96:1229–1233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-009-0581-2
Law R (2000) Fishing, selection, and phenotypic evolution. ICES J Mar Sci 57:659–668. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmsc.2000.0731
Lima SL (1998) Nonlethal effects in the ecology of predator-prey interactions. Bioscience 48:25–34. https://doi.org/10.2307/1313225
Lima SL, Dill LM (1990) Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus. Can J Zool 68:619–640. https://doi.org/10.1139/z90-092
Louison MJ, Jeffrey JD, Suski CD, Stein JA (2018) Sociable bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus, are selectively captured via recreational angling. Anim Behav 142:129–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.06.013
Lynch M, Walsh B (1998) Genetics and analysis of quantitative traits. Sinauer, Sunderland
MacNeil MA, Tyler EH, Fonnesbeck CJ, Rushton SP, Polunin NV, Conroy MJ (2008) Accounting for detectability in reef-fish biodiversity estimates. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 367:249–260. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011722
Madin EM, Gaines SD, Warner RR (2010) Field evidence for pervasive indirect effects of fishing on prey foraging behavior. Ecology 91:3563–3571. https://doi.org/10.1890/09-2174.1
Magurran AE (1993) Individual differences and alternative behaviours Behaviour of teleost fishes, vol 2. Springer US, New York, pp 441–477
Mather JA, Logue DM (2013) The bold and the spineless: invertebrate personalities. Animal personalities: behavior, physiology, and evolution. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 13–35. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226922065.003.0002
Nanninga GB, Manica A (2018) Larval swimming capacities affect genetic differentiation and range size in demersal marine fishes. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 589:1–12. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12515
Nussey DH, Wilson AJ, Brommer JE (2007) The evolutionary ecology of individual phenotypic plasticity in wild populations. J Evol Biol 20:831–844. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01300.x
Pellegrini AF, Wisenden BD, Sorensen PW (2010) Bold minnows consistently approach danger in the field and lab in response to either chemical or visual indicators of predation risk. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 64:381–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-009-0854-y
Philipp DP, Cooke SJ, Claussen JE, Koppelman JB, Suski CD, Burkett DP (2009) Selection for vulnerability to angling in largemouth bass. Trans Am Fish Soc 138:189–199. https://doi.org/10.1577/T06-243.1
Réale D, Reader SM, Sol D, McDougall PT, Dingemanse NJ (2007) Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution. Biol Rev 82:291–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00010.x
Rhoades OK, Lonhart SI, Stachowicz JJ (2018) Fished species uniformly reduced escape behaviors in response to protection. Biol Conserv 226:238–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.06.030Schmitt
Schmitt RJ, Holbrook SJ (1985) Patch selection by juvenile black surfperch (Embiotocidae) under variable risk: interactive influence of food quality and structural complexity. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 85:269–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(85)90162-5
Sebastien F, Leguay D, Vergnet A, Vidal M-O, Chatain B, Begout M-L (2016) Unpredictability in food supply during early life influences growth and boldness in European seabass Dicentrarchus labrax. Appl Anim Behav Sci 180:147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2016.04.017
Selkoe KA, Vogel A, Gaines SD (2007) Effects of ephemeral circulation on recruitment and connectivity of nearshore fish populations spanning Southern and Baja California. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 351:209–220. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07157
Sheckler D, Sheckler K (2008) A diver's guide to Southern California's Best Beach Dives, 4th edn. Saint Brendan Corp, Torrance
Shumway CA (1999) A neglected science: applying behavior to aquatic conservation. In: Environmental biology of fishes. Springer, pp 183–201
Siepielski AM, Dibattista JD, Carlson SM (2009) It’s about time: the temporal dynamics of phenotypic selection in the wild. Ecol Lett 12:1261–1276. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01381.x
Siepielski AM, Morrissey MB, Buoro M, Carlson SM, Caruso CM, Clegg SM, Coulson T, DiBattista J, Gotanda KM, Francis CD, Hereford J, Kingsolver JG, Augustiine KE, Kruuk LEB, Martin RA, Sheldon BC, Sletvold N, Svensson EI, Wade MJ, MacColl ADC (2017) Precipitation drives global variation in natural selection. Science 355:959–962. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aag2773
Sih A, Bell A, Johnson JC (2004) Behavioral syndromes: an ecological and evolutionary overview. Trends Ecol Evol 19:372–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2004.04.009
Smith BR, Blumstein DT (2008) Fitness consequences of personality: a meta-analysis. Behav Ecol 19:448–455. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arm144
Stamps JA (2007) Growth-mortality tradeoffs and “personality traits” in animals. Ecol Lett 10:355–363. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01034.x
Stamps JA, Biro PA (2016) Personality and individual differences in plasticity. Curr Opin Behav Sci 12:18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.08.008
Stankowich T, Blumstein DT (2005) Fear in animals: a meta-analysis and review of risk assessment. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 272:2627–2634. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3251
Steele MA (1999) Effects of shelter and predators on reef fishes. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 233:65–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0981(98)00127-0
Strobbe F, McPeek MA, De Block M, Stoks R (2011) Fish predation selects for reduced foraging activity. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 65:241–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-010-1032-y
Sutter DAH, Suski CD, Philipp DP, Klefoth T, Wahl DH, Kersten P, Cooke SJ, Arlinghaus R (2012) Recreational fishing selectively captures individuals with the highest fitness potential. PNAS 109:20960–20965. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212536109
Toms CN, Echevarria DJ, Jouandot DJ (2010) A methodological review of personality-related studies in fish: focus on the shy-bold axis of behavior. Int J Comp Psychol 23
Tsuboi JI, Morita K, Klefoth T, Endou S, Arlinghaus R (2016) Behaviour-mediated alteration of positively size-dependent vulnerability to angling in response to historical fishing pressure in a freshwater salmonid. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 73:461–468. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2014-0571
Tupper M, Boutilier RG (1997) Effects of habitat on settlement, growth, predation risk and survival of a temperate reef fish. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 151:225–236. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps151225
Uusi-Heikkilä S, Wolter C, Klefoth T, Arlinghaus R (2008) A behavioral perspective on fishing-induced evolution. Trends Ecol Evol 23:419–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2008.04.006
Uusi-Heikkilä S, Whiteley AR, Kuparinen A, Matsumura S, Venturelli PA, Wolter C, Slate J, Primmer CR, Meinelt T, Killen SS, Bierbach D (2015) The evolutionary legacy of size-selective harvesting extends from genes to populations. Evol Appl 8:597–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12268
Van Oers K, Sinn DL (2011) Towards a basis for the phenotypic gambit: advances in the evolutionary genetics of animal personality. In: Inoue-Murayama M, Kawamura S, Inoue E, Weiss A (eds) From genes to animal behavior: social structures, personalities, communication by color (primatology monographs). Springer, pp 165–183. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53892-9_7
Walker JA, Ghalambor CK, Griset OL, McKenney D, Reznick DN (2005) Do faster starts increase the probability of evading predators? Funct Ecol 19:808–815. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.01033.x
Walsh MR, Munch SB, Chiba S, Conover DO (2006) Maladaptive changes in multiple traits caused by fishing: impediments to population recovery. Ecol Lett 9:142–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00858.x
Waples RS (1987) A multispecies approach to the analysis of gene flow in marine shore fishes. Evolution 41:385–400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1987.tb05805.x
Webster MM, Ward AJW, Hart PJB (2007) Boldness is influenced by social context in three spine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Behaviour 144:351–371. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853907780425721
Wilson DS (1998) Adaptive individual differences within single populations. Philos Trans R Soc B 353:199–205. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1998.0202
Wilson ADM, Godin JGJ (2009) Boldness and behavioral syndromes in the bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus. Behav Ecol 20:231–237. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arp018
Wilson ADM, Godin JGJ, Ward AJW (2010) Boldness and reproductive fitness correlates in the Eastern mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki. Ethology 116:96–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2009.01719.x
Ydenberg RC, Dill LM (1986) The economics of fleeing from predators. Adv Study Behav 16:229–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60192-8
Acknowledgements
We thank the many people who helped in the field and lab, especially Brian Stirling, Yvette Ralph, Janelle Paz and Bailey McCann. We are grateful for the reviews and comments from Chris Lowe, Mark Steele, and Peter Wainwright. This research was conducted with support from the California State University Council on Ocean Affairs, Science and Technology (award # COAST-GDP-2017-004), the Southern California Academy of Sciences, and the Department of Biological Sciences and the Office of Research and Sponsored Programs, California State University, Long Beach.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
DRS and DWJ conceived and designed this study. DRS and DWJ were responsible for field collection, statistical analysis, and writing of the manuscript. DRS was responsible for data collection, animal husbandry, and design of figures.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
All applicable institutional and/or national guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed.
Additional information
Communicated by Aaron J. Wirsing.
Populations of animals that are separated in space often exhibit consistent differences in behavior, but the degree to which these differences represent genetic adaptation to local environments is often unclear. In this study we found locally-adapted temperament that likely resulted from a combination of heritable variation in behaviors and spatial variation in selection via fishing mortality. Our results emphasize that predation, including fishing mortality, can be a strong force shaping the evolution of behavior and that local adaptation in temperament may be prevalent in the wild.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Satterfield, D., Johnson, D.W. Local adaptation of antipredator behaviors in populations of a temperate reef fish. Oecologia 194, 571–584 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-020-04757-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-020-04757-y